SPIRITUALITY STUDIESVolume 12 / Issue 1 SPRING 2026
Spirituality Studies 12–1 Spring 2026 Publisher: The Society for Spirituality Studies Published in partnership with the Monastic Interreligious Dialogue and the European Union of Yoga Available online: www.spirituality-studies.org Editor-in-Chief: Doc. Dr. Martin Dojčár PhD. Graphic Design: Martin Hynek Contact: editor@spirituality-studies.org ISSN 1339–9578 Donate Spirituality Studies’ mission is to deliver high-quality studies, articles, educational materials, and information related to spirituality in its various forms. At the same time, the journal provides a forum for sharing personal spiritual experiences. By combining academic and experiential approaches to spirituality, Spirituality Studies aims to provide a unique platform for dialogue between a variety of viewpoints, approaches, and methodologies in the study of spirituality. Spirituality Studies publishes all articles under the open access policy, allowing for unlimited public use. Please consider donating to support the continued publishing of Spirituality Studies as an open-access journal for free. ←← Portrait of Rashtrasant Param Gurudev Shree Namaramuni Maharaj Saheb, 2025. Content 1 Editorial Martin Dojčár 3 Effects of Right Mindfulness (Sammā-Sati) on Ameliorating Burnout and Promoting WellBeing for Vietnamese Employees in Japan Phan Thi Tho et al. 27 Kundalinī and the Third Dimension of Perception: Clearing the Mind from Thoughts Monique Rebelle 43 The Ten Sefirot as a Framework for Spiritual-Educational Development Arik Segev 69 Material Karma and Non-Theistic Liberation in Classical Jain Philosophy Nishit Shah 87 Christians of East and West: Patristic Tradition, Spiritual Experience, and Ecclesial Dialogue Georges Antaby 101 From Mystical Experience to Spiritual Process: A Metamodern Framework for Sufism Nina Bilokopytova 119 Between Tradition and Fitness: Czech Yoga Instructors’ Understandings of Contemporary Yoga Practices Lucie Chocholová 139 Feasibility of REBT Integrated with Islamic Music and Relaxation Therapy for Meaning in Life among Muslim Adolescents: A Pilot Study of Gender Differences Muhammad Japar et al. 157 Measuring Spirituality in the Context of Coping for Secularized People: Review of Questionnaires Thijs Huijs et al.
Spirituality Studies 1 EDITORIAL Editorial The mind creates an illusory world that the ancient philosopher Plato referred to as the realm of “shadows”. We have grown so accustomed to these “thought shadows” that we mistakenly regard consciousness incarnated in thoughts as our natural state and identity. In this state, we recognize consciousness only in its incarnated form as intentional consciousness, while overlooking consciousness-in-itself. As a result, the recognition of our authentic identity, derived from non-intentional consciousness, remains obscured. When Greek philosophers used the term alḗtheia to express “truth”, they were referring to the annihilation of this obscurity – the unveiling of non-intentional consciousness as the principal condition of the possibility of every mental activity and the source of one’s authentic identity. One of the traditional terms used to describe practices that unveil non-intentional consciousness is “philosophy”. However, the more common term for these practices is “spirituality”. Spirituality is based on a shift in consciousness from intentional to non-intentional. For this practice to be successful, certain prerequisites must be met. The primary one is “calming” the mind. A restless mind indicates a lack of peace and/or happiness. Therefore, a certain degree of preliminary experiences of peace and/ or happiness is necessary to reduce mental fluctuations. Psychologically it is obvious that when desirable mental states such as love, goodwill, or joyfulness are cultivated, the mind experiences moments of peace and/or happiness and becomes tranquil. In this manner, one spontaneously becomes present by maintaining presence of consciousness with these states within the body, without any further special effort, solely through their power of attraction. This underscores the spiritual importance of moral education in the above sense. Without this kind of moral preparation, the subsequent phases of spiritual practice based on developing concentration and contemplation, cannot be fully accessed. This edition of Spirituality Studies explores some of these prerequisites, including traditional Buddhist mindfulness practices, contemporary yoga teachings of āsana, Jain yoga practices of dhāraṇā, Orthodox Christian hēsychasm traditions of repetitive prayer, and dhikr in Ṣūfism. Dear readers, I invite you to explore these topics in the Spring 2026 edition of Spirituality Studies and be inspired by the insights of our highly qualified authors. Cordially Martin Dojčár
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Spirituality Studies 3 Phan Thi Tho et al. Phan Thi Tho, Ph.D. is a Buddhist Minister and researcher whose work explores the dialogue between ancient spiritual traditions and contemporary science. She can be reached at ttho.mcu@gmail.com. Hansa Dhammahaso, Prof. Dr. is a globally respected Vipassanā meditation master, Professor and Director of the Doctoral Program in Innovative Mindfulness and Peace Studies at Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University in Thailand. Nadnapang Phophichit, Ph.D. is a Lecturer and Director of the Certificate in Mindfulness Master Program at the International Buddhist Studies College at Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University in Thailand. orcid.org Received September 9, 2025 Revised January 15, 2026 Accepted January 16, 2026 Key words Right mindfulness, Wellness Program of Right Mindfulness, ameliorate burnout, Vietnamese employee Phan Thi Tho et al. Phan Thi Tho, Hansa Dhammahaso, Nadnapang Phophichit This feasibility study examined the acceptability of a two‑day Wellness Program of Right Mindfulness retreat and estimated immediate pre-post changes in burnout and well‑being among Vietnamese employees residing in Japan. The program was developed through expert consultation and implemented as a single‑arm retreat (N = 60). Participants completed the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI‑GS) and the WHO‑5 Well‑Being Index before and immediately after the retreat; brief post‑retreat debrief reflections provided exploratory contextual insights. Retention, adherence, and satisfaction indicated high feasibility and acceptability. Pre-post analyses showed substantial reductions in Exhaustion and Cynicism and increases in Professional Efficacy, alongside improved WHO‑5 well‑being. Given the single arm design without a control group and immediate posttest timing, changes should be interpreted as preliminary associations rather than causal effects. These findings support feasibility and justify replication using randomized controlled designs with longer‑term follow‑up and adequately powered analyses to examine moderators of response. Effects of Right Mindfulness (Sammā-Sati) on Ameliorating Burnout and Promoting WellBeing for Vietnamese Employees in Japan ←← Photography © 2026 Martin Dojčár
4 Spirituality Studies 1 Introduction Mindfulness-based interventions have garnered substantial scholarly interest in recent years, owing to their demonstrated efficacy in enhancing psychological well-being and mitigating symptoms of burnout (Zhang et al. 2021). The Wellness Program of Right Mindfulness (Pi. sammā-sati) is a comprehensive approach that integrates mindfulness practices with the four awarenesses in the Sixteen Exercises of Mindful Breathing. The sixteen steps of Ānāpānasati Sutta (Pi. Discourse on Mindfulness of Breathing) meditation guide the practitioner through the progressive cultivation of mindfulness, offering you the choice of where to focus attention so as to develop both tranquility and insight while fostering stronger states of concentration (Thanissaro 2012, 127). Although the body of literature on mindfulness-based interventions has grown substantially, empirical investigations specifically examining the psychological effects of the WPRM remain limited. The present study seeks to address this research gap by systematically evaluating the program’s impact on ameliorating burnout and improving employee psychological well-being. Burnout, a complex psychological syndrome, has transcended borders to become a pressing global concern in occupational health. The World Health Organization (WHO) describes burn-out in ICD-11 as a syndrome resulting from chronic workplace stress that has not been successfully managed and classifies it as an occupational phenomenon rather than a medical condition (World Health Organization 2019). The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) is the gold standard for assessing burnout (Maslach, Leiter, and Schaufeli 2009, 86). It provides a comprehensive understanding of the syndrome through its three core dimensions: Exhaustion, Cynicism, and Professional Efficacy (Maslach et al. 2001, 402). This tool is instrumental in identifying burnout, which often arises from persistent physical and psychological demands, continuous pressure, and a perceived inability to meet organizational expectations. Given the pressing need for effective interventions, investigating the efficacy of the WPRM in ameliorating burnout offers valuable insights into its broader implications for enhancing psychological well-being and promoting overall health. Well-being is rooted in a sense of security, self-worth, and the ability to realize one’s potential. Fulfilling basic needs is essential for achieving higher psychological functioning and sustained mental well-being (Maslow 1943). The WHO-5 (WHO 2024) is a validated instrument designed to assess subjective psychological well-being over the preceding two weeks. It focuses on the positive dimensions of mental health, such as feelings of cheerfulness, calmness, vitality, restfulness, and engagement with daily life, offering a hopeful perspective on mental well-being. As a foundational approach, right mindfulness enhances employee well-being, fosters ethical behavior, mental clarity, and a supportive organizational climate (Perera et al. 2025). Present-moment focus is often used as a practical training instruction, Dreyfus emphasizes that mindfulness is not merely present-centered awareness but a capacity to retain its object. This retentive stance supports sustained attention and helps loosen discursive and affective reactivity, allowing more reflective responding under challenging conditions (Dreyfus 2011, 43–44). Importantly, when systematically integrated into workplace settings, right mindfulness has been shown to promote more deliberate decision-making, mitigate burnout, and encourage greater intentionality and balance in professional engagement, thereby boosting confidence in professional judgment. Exploring the effects of the WPRM on well-being offers valuable insights into its potential to foster healthy lifestyles and cultivate a sense of peace in daily life. This research aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge by systematically investigating the effects of the WPRM on a range of psychological variables. This single-arm feasibility study combines quantitative pre-post assessments with brief exploratory post-retreat debrief reflections to understand the intervention’s outcomes. “Right Mindfulness” (Pi. sammā-sati) is a core element of the Noble Eightfold Path, traditionally regarded as the means to the cessation of suffering (Payutto 2021, 792). It entails intentionally cultivating present-moment awareness through attentive observation of bodily sensations, affective experiences, and mental activities. This disciplined practice is intended to facilitate insight into the fundamental nature of existence and the origins of suffering. In this study, the traditional principles of Right Mindfulness have been reformulated into a structured intervention to assess its impact on contemporary psychological outcomes. Unlike secular Mindfulness-Based Interventions (MBIs), which often isolate attention regulation from ethical frameworks, the WPRM is grounded in sammā-sati (Pi. “Right Mindfulness”). In the Buddhist context, mindfulness is not merely non-judgmental awareness but is intrinsically linked to sammā-ditthi (Pi. “Right View”) and sammā-vāyāma (Pi. “Right Effort”). This distinction is critical for the target population of Vietnamese employees, for whom burnout is often not
Spirituality Studies 5 Phan Thi Tho et al. just a result of workload, but of ethical dissonance and cultural isolation. The WPRM addresses this by integrating the “ethical dimension” (Pi. sīla) (MN 117) – specifically the discernment between wholesome and unwholesome states – which is frequently absent in secular adaptations. Recent research (Phophichit et al. 2025) further underscores that incorporating spiritual principles enhances cultural resonance for Buddhist populations, reinforcing the necessity of such integration in workplace interventions. Previous research has yielded encouraging findings in related domains, indicating that brief mindfulness meditation interventions can effectively reduce psychological distress and burnout (Cheng et al. 2022). Burnout prevention in a Vietnamese migrant context in Japan requires addressing emotional strain and cultural dissonance; culturally resonant mindfulness intervention is the proposed solution to enhance employee well-being (Tho et al. 2025, 974). Mediational analyses further revealed that post-intervention differences in mindfulness and self-compassion played a mediating role in the observed reductions in stress, burnout, and symptoms of anxiety and depression during follow-up assessments of mindfulness-based stress reduction programs (Roeser et al. 2013, 787). This study aims to advance existing scholarship by systematically investigating the impact of the WPRM on a wide range of psychological indicators. Focusing on changes in burnout and overall well-being, the research seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of how this mindfulness-based intervention affects participants’ mental health. The study was designed to achieve three SMART objec‑ tives: 1. To assess feasibility and acceptability of delivering a two-day WPRM retreat (recruitment, retention, adherence, and satisfaction) for Vietnamese employees in Japan. 2. To describe baseline levels of burnout (MBI-GS) and well-being (WHO-5) in this participant group at program entry. 3. To estimate immediate pre-post changes in burnout (MBI‑GS) and well‑being (WHO‑5) and to explore cultural/spiritual fit using brief (10–15 minute) semi-structured post-retreat debrief reflections. The study’s aims and feasibility criteria: This early‑phase, single‑arm feasibility study was designed to (a) evaluate feasibility/acceptability of delivering a two‑day WPRM retreat and (b) estimate immediate pre-post changes in burnout and well‑being to inform a future controlled trial. Accordingly, we prespecified feasibility criteria (retention, adherence, satisfaction) and treated quantitative outcomes as preliminary pre-post estimates rather than confirmatory tests of efficacy. Feasibility hypotheses: HF1. Retention will be ≥ 90% (participants complete the two-day retreat and both pre- and post-assessments). HF2. Adherence to the core retreat schedule will be ≥ 85 %, defined as attending ≥ 85% of scheduled sessions per participant (per-session attendance log recorded by the research team). HF3. Program acceptability will be high (mean satisfaction ≥ 4.0/5 and ≥ 85% of participants rating the program 4 or 5). Qualitative convergence hypotheses: HQ1. Qualitative accounts will converge with the quantitative pattern by describing perceived changes in stress recognition, emotion regulation, self-regulation, and meaning-making. This study used a single-arm pretest-posttest pre-experimental mixed-methods feasibility design and was conducted at Dai Nam Temple in Himeji City, Hyogo Province, Japan. The naturalistic retreat setting enabled standardized pre-post measurement and qualitative exploration of participants’ lived experience, while acknowledging that the absence of a control group limits causal inference.
6 Spirituality Studies 2 Literature Review 2.1 Right Mindfulness “Right Mindfulness” (Pi. sammā-sati) is an ethically oriented practice of remembering and recollecting the path, enacted through remaining focused on body, feelings, mind, and mental qualities with alertness and ardency (Thanissaro 2012, 13–14). This disciplined attentiveness develops insight into the nature of existence and the underlying causes of “suffering” (Pi. dukkha) (Feer 1976, 414). As a foundational element in the Buddha’s path to enlightenment, Right Mindfulness holds significant spiritual, psychological, and practical value (Silananda 2004, 294–295). The Four Foundations of Mindfulness-Based Intervention has the potential to be an effective tool for stress management, cognitive enhancement, and overall well-being (Phophichit et al. 2025). The practice of meditation, particularly Mindfulness of breathing, is one of the earliest contemplative techniques, and is widely regarded as a method possibly employed by the Buddha before his awakening. The sixteen steps Mindfulness of Breathing (Ānāpānasati Sutta) meditation are outlined in the Buddha’s teachings in the Majjhima Nikāya (Pi. “Middle-Length Discourses”). These steps guide the practitioner in developing mindfulness and concentration, leading to insight and liberation. They are grouped into four tetrads, each focused on a different aspect of the meditation practice (Dhammajoti 2008). The Sixteen Steps of Mindfulness of Breathing Meditation guide the practitioner through the progressive cultivation of mindfulness, concentration, and insight. Each step refines the practitioner’s awareness, leading to greater clarity, mental purity, and wisdom. By practicing these steps with diligence and patience, the practitioner can achieve deep peace and insight, ultimately progressing toward liberation. 2.2 Modern Applications and Benefits In recent decades, mindfulness practices originating from Buddhist contemplative traditions have received increasing attention in Western psychology and neuroscience. Research on mindfulness-based interventions has demonstrated their capacity to reduce burnout and stress, enhance psychological well-being, increase engagement in professional life, and strengthen a sense of connection with the community (Emerson et al. 2017; Carroll et al. 2021; Othman et al. 2023). Mindfulness practice has been consistently associated with multiple psychological and physiological benefits. Recent evidence indicates that Mindfulness-Based Interventions (MBIs) significantly reduce stress, anxiety, and depression, while also improving sleep quality, enhancing cognitive performance, and increasing overall well-being (Zhang et al. 2021; Rusch et al. 2019). Importantly, MBIs are effective tools for mitigating burnout and occupational stress among ICU nurses (Alharbi and McKenna 2025, 1). A systematic review reported that mindfulness training not only decreases emotional exhaustion and improves resilience, but also holds promise in preventing burnout, with six out of eight controlled studies showing statistically significant reductions in job burnout (Luken and Sammons 2016, 1). Moreover, neuroimaging research strongly suggests that mindfulness practice induces structural and functional brain changes, particularly in regions associated with attention and emotion regulation. These changes underpin the longterm benefits of mindfulness for mental health and stress resilience (Tang et al. 2015, 216–223). This scientific evidence further supports the integration of mindfulness into clinical and organizational settings as an effective strategy for promoting psychological well-being and preventing burnout.
Spirituality Studies 7 Phan Thi Tho et al. Table 1 The Sixteen Steps of Mindfulness of Breathing Meditation First Tetrad: Contemplation of the Body 1 Breathing In and Out, Long or Short: The practitioner mindfully observes the breath’s length – long or short – developing nonjudgmental awareness of the body’s natural breathing process. 2 Breathing In and Out, With Awareness of the Body: The practitioner fully attends to bodily sensations of the breath, cultivating present-moment awareness of the body. 3 Breathing In and Out, Calming the Body: By mindfully breathing, the practitioner releases physical tension, using the breath to calm and relax the body. 4 Breathing In and Out, Experiencing the Body’s Tranquility: With the body calmed, the practitioner experiences a deepening sense of peace and physical stillness through the breath. Second Tetrad: Contemplation of Feelings 5 Breathing In and Out, Experiencing Joy: The practitioner becomes aware of subtle joy or contentment arising from a calm and mindful state. 6 Breathing In and Out, Experiencing Happiness: Building on joy, the practitioner experiences deeper happiness rooted in inner peace and mindfulness. 7 Breathing In and Out, Experiencing Mental Calmness: With continued focus on the breath, the mind settles into stillness, becoming peaceful and undistracted. 8 Breathing In and Out, Experiencing Mental Clarity: As calm deepens, the mind becomes clear and sharp, allowing insight into the nature of thoughts and emotions. Third Tetrad: Contemplation of the Mind 9 Breathing In and Out, Observing the Presence of the Mind: The practitioner observes the mind’s current state calm, distracted, or agitated without trying to change it. 10 Breathing In and Out, Observing the Mind’s Nature: Attention shifts to the mind’s impermanence, observing thoughts and emotions as transient and ever-changing. 11 Breathing In and Out, Clearing the Mind of Defilements: By staying with the breath, the practitioner lets go of defilements like greed, hatred, and delusion, fostering clarity. 12 Breathing In and Out, Maintaining a Mind That is Free from Distractions: The practitioner maintains unwavering focus on the breath, cultivating deep concentration and mental stability. Fourth Tetrad: Contemplation of Mental Objects 13 Breathing In and Out, Observing the Impermanent Nature of Phenomena: The practitioner sees all experiences as changing, cultivating insight into impermanence and reducing attachment. 14 Breathing In and Out, Observing the Unsatisfactory Nature of Phenomena: Mindfulness reveals that all conditioned things are ultimately unsatisfying, highlighting the root of suffering. 15 Breathing In and Out, Observing the Non-Self Nature of Phenomena: Through the breath, the practitioner realizes there is no fixed self only ever-changing, interdependent processes. 16 Breathing In and Out, Attaining Liberation and Insight: The practice culminates in liberating insight, freeing the mind from suffering and realizing the true nature of reality.
8 Spirituality Studies 2.3 Burnout Burnout develops progressively as an individual response to chronic work stress (Edú-Valsania et al. 2022, 2). The three key dimensions of this response are an overwhelming exhaustion, feelings of cynicism and detachment from the job, and a sense of ineffectiveness and lack of accomplishment (Maslach and Leiter 2016, 103). Unlike acute stress, which is temporary and often adaptive, burnout can have profound implications for both mental and physical health. The gradual development of burnout underscores the need for early intervention and prevention. As healthcare professionals, organizational leaders, or students interested in workplace health, it’s important to recognize and address burnout. Burnout is associated with a range of adverse outcomes, including depression, anxiety disorders, sleep disturbances, and cardiovascular risk factors such as hypertension. Prospective evidence indicates that job burnout predicts a range of physical health consequences, including respiratory problem (Salvagioni et al. 2017, 1). At the organizational level, it contributes to decreased productivity, higher absenteeism, and increased turnover (Salama et al. 2022, 2). By understanding and addressing burnout, we can make a positive impact on workplace health. Several validated tools exist for measuring burnout. The most widely used is the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), which evaluates the three core dimensions. For the MBI, the solution was the development of a General Survey that could be used within any occupation (MBI‐GS) (Maslach et al. 1997). Other instruments include the Copenhagen Burnout Inventory (CBI) (Kristensen et al. 2005) and the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI) (Halbesleben and Demerouti 2005). These tools rely on self-reported questionnaires and are often complemented by physiological markers (e.g., cortisol levels, which can indicate stress levels) and behavioral indicators (e.g., absenteeism rates, which can reflect a lack of engagement or motivation). The choice of assessment method depends on the context, required depth of analysis, and available resources. 2.4 Well-Being Well-being is commonly defined as the combination of feeling good and functioning well, extending beyond the absence of ill health toward positive functioning and life satisfaction (Ruggeri et al. 2020, 1; World Health Organization 1948, 1). This multidimensional nature of well-being, which integrates both subjective experiences and objective indicators, is a fascinating and complex area of study that is crucial for understanding human health and happiness. High levels of well-being are linked to several health benefits, including a reduced risk of chronic diseases, improved immune function, and increased longevity (Oster and Chaves 2023). Conversely, poor well-being is associated with a higher incidence of mental health disorders like depression and anxiety, as well as an increased risk for cardiovascular and other stress-related conditions (Borkowski and Borkowska 2024). Well-being also influences positive health behaviors, such as diet, physical activity, and adherence to medical advice (Mahindru et al. 2023). Assessing well-being is a crucial step in understanding and improving our health. It typically involves a combination of methods, each with its unique strengths. Researchers commonly use self-report questionnaires, such as the WHO-5 Well-Being Index (Topp et al. 2015) and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) (Yun et al. 2019), to measure subjective perceptions of happiness and purpose. These tools, along with objective measures like employment status and social support networks, provide a comprehensive view of well-being. The choice of assessment approach depends on the intended application, whether for clinical screening, research, or policy development. Armed with these tools, we can better understand and enhance our well-being.
Spirituality Studies 9 Phan Thi Tho et al. 2.5 Theoretical Framework: Integrating Buddhist Mindfulness and Contemporary Psychology In Buddhist tradition, particularly “Right Mindfulness” (Pi. sammā-sati), mindfulness is a disciplined practice of present-moment awareness embedded in the Noble Eightfold Path. Observing body, feelings, mind, and mental objects to cultivate insight into suffering and impermanence (Bodhi Contemporary psychology conceptualizes mindfulness through mechanisms that align with these principles. Three key processes form the integration, specifically attention regulation, emotion regulation, and meta-cognition and self-compassion. Attention Regulation. Buddhist mindfulness in the first tetrad (contemplation of the body) trains sustained, non-reactive awareness, paralleling cognitive models of attentional control. Specifically, this practice aligns with the concept of executive attention, which refers to control processes that monitor and resolve conflict among competing thoughts, feelings, and responses (Posner and Rothbart 2007, 6). Emotion Regulation. Observing feelings and mental states in the second and third tetrads (contemplation of feelings and mind) aligns with emotion regulation insofar as mindfulness trains nonjudgmental attention to present experience, which can reduce rumination and thereby support more adaptive coping with psychological distress (Hammerdahl et al. 2025, 102). Meta-Cognition and Self-Compassion. The fourth tetrad (contemplation of mental objects) fosters metacognitive awareness by observing mental phenomena and their patterns. This function closely parallels Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), which increases psychological flexibility through cognitive defusion and acceptance-based processes (Hayes et al. 2012, 60–61). Furthermore, this practice nurtures self-compassion, a key mediator in reducing stress and burnout (Neff 2003; Roeser et al. 2013). Integration Model. WPRM operationalizes these Buddhist principles in a structured intervention activating empirically supported psychological mechanisms. Ethical orientation and attentional training from Buddhism complement cognitive reappraisal and emotional resilience from psychology, ameliorating burnout and improving well-being. This framework positions WPRM as a grounded approach that bridges contemplative Buddhist traditions and modern psychological science to address occupational burnout and enhance mental health. 1999; Thanissaro 2012). The sixteen steps of Ānāpānasati Sutta (MN 118) provide a structured progression for developing mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom (Dhammajoti 2008). Figure 1 Conceptual Framework (hypothesized pathways) Linking Right Mindfulness Practice Components to Psychological Processes and Outcomes Integration Model Buddhist Mindfulness • Right Mindfulness (sammā-sati) • Ānāpānasati Sutta (4 Tetrads: 16 steps) Contemporary Psychology • Attention Regulation • Emotion Regulation • Metacognition & Self-Compassion Outcomes • Burnout Amelioration Exhaustion ↓ Cynicism ↓ Professional Efficacy ↑ • Well-being Enhancement: Vitality, Engagement, Calmness
10 Spirituality Studies 3 Materials and Methods 3.1 Research Design This research utilized a single-arm pretest-posttest feasibility (pilot) design. This design was selected as an appropriate initial step to assess the feasibility of a culturally specific intervention delivered in a naturalistic temple setting, and to examine pre-post changes associated with participation, given that randomization and a control condition were not feasible due to logistical and ethical constraints. Accordingly, findings are interpreted as preliminary associations rather than evidence of causality. 3.2 Formative Research The formative research phase was conducted to elicit expert perspectives that would ensure the intervention’s theoretical integrity and cultural authenticity, rather than to construct the program independently. This approach aligns with guidance on developing complex interventions, where qualitative inquiry and expert consultation inform intervention design (Terrell 2012). Qualitative research is widely recognized as a critical step in intervention development, offering nuanced understanding that informs subsequent quantitative phases (O’Cathain et al. 2019; Yardley et al. 2021; Agostinho et al. 2023). This phase involved an extensive review of both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources included English translations of the Tipiṭaka, with particular focus on texts relevant to the practice of Right Mindfulness (sammā-sati). Secondary sources comprised classical commentaries, peer-reviewed research articles, and Buddhist academic journals. Complementing the literature review, the study incorporated in-depth, face-to-face interviews with seventeen purposively selected key informants to ensure diversity of expertise and perspectives. Informants were drawn from three distinct groups: 1. Buddhist scholars – experts in Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhist doctrines, particularly in the areas of sammā-sati and the Ānāpānasati Sutta, who provided textual and doctrinal clarity. 2. Meditation masters – experienced practitioners and teachers capable of translating doctrinal knowledge into practical meditation methods suitable for contemporary and cross-cultural settings. 3. Psychologists – professionals with expertise in mental health, workplace stress, and burnout prevention, who could bridge Buddhist practices with modern psychological interventions. Selection criteria included: 1. A minimum of ten years of relevant professional or teaching experience in their field. 2. Recognized contributions to research, teaching, or public programs in mindfulness, meditation, or mental health. 3. Willingness to participate in a 60 to 90-minute in-depth interview and share culturally sensitive insights for adapting the program to Vietnamese employees in Japan. This triangulation of expertise ensured that the intervention was doctrinally accurate, practically applicable, and psychologically relevant, consistent with best practices for developing complex interventions (O’Cathain et al. 2019; Yardley et al. 2021). All interviews were conducted by the principal investigator, ensuring a focused and coherent data collection process. Each session lasted between one and two hours, allowing participants sufficient time to share their views on essential elements of the program, such as its ideal duration, session format, and the inclusion of complementary activities. This phase significantly contributed to ensuring the ecological validity and authenticity of the intervention design.
Spirituality Studies 11 Phan Thi Tho et al. The semi-structured interview protocol was developed to elicit rich, reflective responses from participants, with an emphasis on practical and philosophical dimensions relevant to the development of the WPRM. Interview questions were organized around four principal domains: 1. Recommendations regarding the appropriate duration of the program to facilitate meaningful psychological and behavioral transformation. 2. Perspectives on the ideal composition and balance among various meditative practices, including seated meditation, walking meditation, alternative postures, and mindfulness of daily activities. 3. Suggestions for incorporating auxiliary elements such as Dhamma talks, individual consultation sessions, and tea meditation to enhance participant engagement. 4. Identifying contextual and environmental factors that support the continuity and depth of meditative practice during intensive retreat settings. All interviews were audio-recorded with participant consent and transcribed verbatim to ensure data fidelity. The transcripts were subsequently analyzed using a reflective thematic analysis, allowing salient themes to emerge inductively from the data. This method was selected to preserve the contextual richness and interpretive depth characteristic of spiritually grounded and experience-based knowledge systems. Rather than imposing a rigid a priori coding framework, the analysis emphasized openness to emergent meaning structures embedded in the participants’ narratives. Particular attention was given to integrating doctrinal understanding and practical application within the mindfulness tradition. Themes such as the necessity of individualized instruction for novice practitioners and the centrality of Dhamma talks in sustaining motivation were among the recurring insights and were systematically incorporated into the intervention design. To enhance analytical credibility, the emergent themes and their application within the intervention model were subjected to periodic peer debriefings with researchers experienced in mindfulness-based interventions. This collaborative process served both to triangulate findings and to maintain epistemological sensitivity to the non-reductionist nature of contemplative and spiritual discourse. 3.3 Quantitative Research The quantitative phase adopted a single-group pretest-posttest pre-experimental design to assess the impact of the WPRM. A total of sixty participants were recruited in accordance with specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. Inclusion criteria required participants to (1) voluntarily consent to participate by signing an informed consent form; (2) hold Vietnamese nationality; (3) commit to full participation throughout the retreat period; (4) be between 25 and 45 years of age; (5) have prior experience with mindfulness of breathing meditation; (6) demonstrate the ability to engage in both sitting and walking meditation for a minimum of thirty minutes per session; (7) possess good physical health without any chronic medical conditions or psychological disorders; and (8) have experienced no significant bereavement (i.e., loss of a close family member) within the past six months. Participants who did not meet these criteria were excluded from the study. Sample size rationale. As a feasibility study, the primary purpose was to evaluate acceptability, adherence, and retention and to estimate the magnitude of immediate pre–post change to inform a future controlled trial. We nevertheless conducted an a priori planning calculation for a paired pre-post comparison of difference scores assuming a medium effect dz = 0.5 and two-tailed α = 0. 05. Depending on the power level selected, the required sample ranges from approximately n ≈ 44 (90% power) to n ≈ 54 (95% power). We targeted sixty participants to exceed either threshold, allow for attrition, and improve the precision of pre-post estimates.
12 Spirituality Studies Figure 2 Composition of Participants 65.1% 28.3% 3.3% 3.3% 25-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 The final sample consisted of sixty participants, with a slight female majority (58.3%). The age range was 25–45 years, with the largest group (65.1%) aged 25–30 years. All participants had prior meditation experience. Practice durations varied, with 63.3% meditating for at least three days and 36.6% for a week or more. These demographic characteristics reflect strong engagement and suggest the potential of mindfulness for enhancing well-being, supporting further investigation. Table 2 Summary of the Demographic Information of the Participants (N = 60) The Demographic Information Frequency Percentage Gender Male Female 35 25 58.30 41.70 Age 25–30 31–35 36–40 41–45 39 17 2 2 65.10 28.30 3.30 3.30 Previous Experience Having Experience with Mindfulness Meditation Practiced 1 day Practiced continuously for 2 days Practiced continuously for 3 days Practiced continuously for 1 week Constantly practiced for more than 1 week 60 12 16 10 11 11 100 20.0 26.70 16.70 18.30 18.30
Spirituality Studies 13 Phan Thi Tho et al. 3.4 Research Instruments This study examines the effects of Right Mindfulness (Pi. sammā-sati) on occupational burnout and psychological well-being among Vietnamese employees living in Japan. Standardized and psychometrically validated instruments were employed to ensure methodological rigor and construct validity. Burnout was measured using the MBI-GS, a widely used tool developed by Christina Maslach and Susan Jackson. The MBI-GS consists of sixteen items rated on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 0 (“never”) to 6 (“every day”), and evaluates three core dimensions of burnout: Exhaustion (5 items), Cynicism (5 items), and Professional Efficacy (6 items). This instrument has been extensively validated across diverse occupational and cultural contexts and remains a gold standard for assessing occupational burnout. Psychological well-being was assessed using the WHO-5 Well-Being Index, a brief, validated instrument developed by the World Health Organization. The WHO-5 comprises five positively framed items, with responses scored on a 6-point Likert scale from 0 (“not at all”) to 5 (“all of the time”). The total raw score ranges from 0 to 25, with higher scores indicating greater well-being. A score below thirteen indicates reduced psychological well-being and may warrant further clinical assessment. Together, these instruments provided a robust framework for quantitatively evaluating the WPRM’s impact on burnout and well-being, offering critical insights into the psychological benefits of mindfulness practice within this population. 3.5 Experimental Procedure The intervention was conducted as a two-day WPRM at Dai Nam Temple in Himeji City, Hyogo Province, Japan. Before the retreat, participants attended an orientation session, and baseline data including burnout and well-being measures were collected using the MBI-GS and WHO-5 instruments. Pre-intervention assessments were conducted in the morning, one day before the retreat, under standardized conditions. The retreat followed a strict daily schedule beginning at 05:00 a.m. and concluding at 9:00 p.m., incorporating walking and sitting meditation, mindful eating, contemplation of daily activities, Dhamma talks, meditation interviews, tea meditation, and evening chanting. All participants adhered to the same routine to control for external variables such as diet, rest, and environmental exposure. Adherence was measured using a per-session attendance log completed by the research team; adherence was calculated for each participant as the number of sessions attended divided by the total number of scheduled sessions, expressed as a percentage, and summarized at the group level. Post-intervention assessments were conducted on the final day using the same procedures, tools, and research team to ensure consistency. Environmental and procedural conditions, including timing, diet, and participant accommodations, were tightly controlled. Participants refrained from using mobile phones throughout the program. Brief post-retreat debrief reflections were collected to complement quantitative data, demonstrating the comprehensive nature of the study. These reflections aimed to provide exploratory context for participants’ experiences of the mindfulness intervention, providing a more holistic understanding of the intervention’s impact. 3.6 Data Collection Quantitative data were collected using a twenty-one-item questionnaire combining the MBI-GS and the WHO-5. These instruments were administered pre- and post-intervention to measure changes in burnout and psychological well-being following participation in the WPRM, delivered in a structured retreat setting. Qualitative data were collected immediately after the retreat via brief individual semi-structured debrief interviews (approximately 10–15 minutes). The interviewer typed participants’ responses verbatim into an electronic form to minimize burden and preserve wording. Prompts addressed perceived changes after WPRM practice, obstacles encountered during practice, and principles or strategies used to overcome obstacles. Responses were anonymized and labeled P01–P60. Because these debrief reflections were brief and collected immediately post‑retreat, they are interpreted as exploratory contextual data rather than a comprehensive qualitative inquiry aimed at thematic saturation.
14 Spirituality Studies 3.7 Data Analysis Qualitative debrief responses were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke 2006) with iterative familiarization, coding, theme development, review, and write-up. Themes are reported with verbatim excerpts (P01–P60). Integration of quantitative and qualitative findings occurred during interpretation by comparing quantitative pre-post patterns with qualitative themes to identify convergence and complementarity; interpretations are framed as associative rather than causal due to the single-group design. No missing questionnaire data were observed; all sixty participants completed all pre‑ and post‑intervention items. 3.8 Ethical Considerations Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of the researcher’s institution (Approval Code R.81/2025), granted on 10 March 2025. All participants provided written informed consent prior to participation and were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Participant confidentiality was strictly maintained, and all data were used solely for research purposes. 3.9 Integration of Findings Findings from both quantitative and qualitative data were integrated during the interpretation phase using a triangulation approach. We examined convergence between observed pre-post score changes and participants’ reported experiences and used qualitative themes to contextualize and explain patterns in the quantitative outcomes. Because the study did not include a control group, integrated interpretations are presented as preliminary and non-causal. 4 Results 4.1 Burnout Outcomes Burnout was assessed across three dimensions: Exhaustion, Cynicism, and Professional Efficacy before and after the WPRM intervention. Paired-sample t-tests were conducted to evaluate changes between pre- and post-intervention scores. The table below summarizes the statistical results. The analysis revealed extremely large within-participant pre-post differences across burnout dimensions. Specifically, Cohen’s dz values were 2.81 for Exhaustion, 2.40 for Cynicism, and −0.61 for Professional Efficacy. Because the paired t-tests were computed on pre minus post scores, positive t (and dz) values for Exhaustion and Cynicism indicate reductions in these burnout symptoms, whereas the negative value for Professional Efficacy indicates an increase in professional efficacy (the inverse burnout dimension). 4.1.1 Exhaustion (EE) The chart illustrates the mean EE scores before and after the intervention. In the pre-test, the average score was 4.66 (Very High), indicating a severe level of emotional fatigue. After the intervention, the score decreased to 1.87 (Medium Low), representing a 2.79-point reduction across three severity levels. Consistent with this pattern, exhaustion scores showed a significant decrease from pre-intervention (M = 4.66, SD = 0.76) to post-intervention (M = 1.87, SD = 0.65), t(59) = 21.74, p <.001 (see Table 3). This substantial reduction reflects a marked improvement in emotional fatigue following the WPRM intervention. 4.1.2 Cynicism (CY) The chart displays mean scores for CY, a core indicator of burnout, measured pre- and post-intervention. At baseline, the mean score was 3.84 (High), reflecting significant emotional detachment and disengagement from work. After the intervention, the score dropped to 1.24 (Medium Low), representing a 2.6-point decrease spanning three categorical levels. Consistent with this overall trend, cynicism also showed a significant decline, from M = 3.84 (SD = 0.89) to M = 1.24 (SD = 0.62), t(59) = 18.62, p <.001. This substantial reduction reflects improved work-related attitudes, reduced emotional withdrawal, and greater psychological engagement. The findings suggest that the intervention ef-
Spirituality Studies 15 Phan Thi Tho et al. fectively alleviated burnout and helped restore participants’ psychological connection to their professional roles. 4.1.3 Professional Efficacy (PE) The chart presents mean scores for PE, an inverse indicator of burnout, measured pre- and post-intervention. The mean PE score at baseline was 2.57 (Very Low), indicating diminished self-efficacy. Post-intervention, the score rose to 3.64 (Low), representing a notable improvement of over one categorical level. Consistent with this improvement, professional efficacy increased significantly, from M = 2.57 (SD = 0.62) to M = 3.64 (SD = 0.59), t(59) = −4.73, p <.001. This increase in PE aligned with concurrent reductions in Exhaustion and Cynicism, suggesting that the intervention effectively alleviated burnout symptoms and enhanced participants’ sense of professional competence. 4.2 Well-Being Outcomes The chart below illustrates the remarkable progress in participants’ subjective well-being, as evidenced by the WHO-5 Well-Being Index before and after the intervention. Item-level analysis of the WHO-5 revealed significant improvements across all five dimensions following the intervention (Table 4). For example, feelings of cheerfulness increased from a mean of 1.92 (SD =.809) to 3.67 (SD =.655), t(59) = −13.02, p <.001. Comparable improvements were observed for calmness, vigor, restfulness, and interest in daily life, all demonstrating statistically significant gains (all p <.001). The total WHO-5 score also improved markedly from 1.62 (SD =.621) to 3.21 (SD =.424), t(59) = −16.42, p <.001, reflecting a substantial enhancement in participants’ overall well-being. 4.3 Summary of Feasibility Outcomes and Pre-Post Estimates Consistent with the study’s feasibility aim, pre-post analyses indicated substantial within-participant improvements from baseline to immediate post-retreat. Exhaustion and Cynicism decreased, while Professional Efficacy increased, and WHO‑5 well-being scores improved across all items. These pre-post differences should be interpreted as preliminary signals associated with participation in the retreat and warrant confirmation in future controlled studies. First, participants’ levels of Exhaustion significantly decreased following the intervention, with mean scores dropping from 4.66 (classified as Very High) to 1.87 (Medium Low), indicating a 2.79-point reduction across three severity levels. This suggests a substantial improvement in emotional well-being and reduced burnout-related fatigue. Second, Cynicism levels also declined markedly, with mean scores falling from 3.84 (High) to 1.24 (Medium Low), representing a 2.6-point drop and reflecting enhanced emotional engagement and reduced detachment from work. Third, Professional Efficacy improved significantly, rising from a mean score of 2.57 (Very Low) to 3.64 (Low), indicating increased self-perceived competence, motivation, and a sense of professional accomplishment. Lastly, results from the WHO-5 revealed notable improvements across all five affective domains: participants reported feeling more cheerful, calm, active, refreshed, and interested in daily life. Overall, WHO-5 scores rose from a baseline range of 24–38% to a post-intervention range of 60–70%, reflecting a clear shift from psychological distress to moderate-to-high levels of well-being. Collectively, these outcomes highlight the effectiveness of the WPRM in reducing burnout and enhancing psychological resilience and vitality. 4.4 Exploratory Post‑Retreat Debrief Reflections: Contextual Findings Brief debrief reflections were analyzed to provide preliminary context for the quantitative patterns. Given the short duration of interviews and the feasibility scope, themes should be interpreted as exploratory and not exhaustive. Immediately after the retreat, participants completed brief individual debrief interviews focused on (a) perceived changes, (b) obstacles during practice, and (c) strategies used to overcome obstacles. An exploratory thematic review of responses identified four preliminary themes, illustrated with selected verbatim excerpts (P01–P60).
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