Spirituality Studies 159 Thijs Huijs et al. therefore adopted the same Fowler-based criteria. We use the following three criteria: (a) Items should inquire about firsthand experiences: (b) items include a single question, and (c) items have to be formulated such that they have a consistent meaning. So, an additional research question is formulated: What are the essential content elements of items that address the transcendental aspect of spirituality within the context of coping and how can these items be formulated to be inclusive and applicable to both secular and religious individuals? 1.1 Theoretical background on Spirituality in the Context of Coping Spirituality can be considered a fundamental characteristic of every human being, shaping how individuals find meaning and connection throughout their lives. It is considered a constitutive trait that one possesses from birth to death (McCarroll et al. 2005, 43–59) and a universal dimension of the human experience (Russo-Netzer 2017, 2; Walach 2017, 11). Similarly, Elkins et al. (1988, 8) agree that spirituality is a trait found in every human. They developed the Spiritual Orientation Inventory (SOI), which enabled them to examine the prevalence of spiritual attitudes and the recognition of a spiritual dimension in human experience. This SOI is based on four assumptions: 1) the existence of a spiritual dimension; 2) spirituality potentially exists in all persons; 3) there is a difference between spirituality and religiosity; and 4) spirituality can be defined and empirically assessed based on phenomenological and theoretical approaches. Based on their theoretical research, Elkins et al. (1988) defined spirituality as “a way of being and experiencing that arises from an awareness of a transcendent dimension and that is characterized by certain values regarding oneself, others, nature, life and what is considered the Ultimate” (1988, 10). This definition aligns with those as formulized by authors such as Nolan et al. (2011, 88) and Puchalski et al. (2009, 887). Nolan et al. (2011, 88) advance a European consensus definition of spirituality that extends the earlier formulation by Puchalski et al. (2009, 887), thereby acknowledging and addressing nuanced differences between the European and internationally proposed conceptualizations. Nolan et al. (2011, 88) define spirituality as “the evolving aspect of human life that shapes how individuals or communities experience, express, and pursue meaning, purpose, and transcendence. It also influences their connection to the present moment, themselves, others, nature, and what they consider significant or sacred.” Similar to the definition of Elkins et al. (1988, 10), the elements of connection, meaning and the significant are present. In the aforementioned definitions of spirituality, two primary axes can be distinguished – a horizontal axis and a vertical one. The horizontal axis of spirituality is connection to oneself, others and the world, an element central to the understanding of spirituality as a source of meaning and (social) belonging. This perspective aligns with Nolan et al. (2011, 88) and Puchalski et al. (2009, 887), who both emphasize how spirituality fosters a sense of belonging, inner harmony, and an appreciation of life’s interconnectedness. The vertical axis of spirituality is a connection to a higher power or transcendence: vertical transcendence. This axis is particularly emphasized by Elkins et al. (1988, 10), who consider transcendence an essential characteristic of spirituality. On the contrary, Nolan et al. (2011, 88) describe transcendence as an aspect that may or may not be present. The theory of detraditionalization of Houtman and Aupers (2007, 313–314) further expands this notion of transcendence, suggesting that as traditional religious structures decline, transcendence is increasingly relocated into personal, individualized spiritual experiences. The interpretation of transcendence itself varies. Contrary to traditional religious frameworks, the sacred is understood not as a person-like transcendent God who created the world, but rather as a diffuse impersonal spirit, life force or energy that is, and always has been, present in the world (Houtman and Tromp 2020, 16). This distinction highlights the diversity of spiritual experiences and underscores the need for measurement tools that capture spirituality in both religious and secular contexts. There are two approaches to questionnaire construction: inductive (contributing to theory) and deductive (derived from theory). Many existing questionnaires, such as the SOI, have been developed based on deductive approaches, where items are constructed based on predefined theoretical definitions of spirituality (Hinkin 1995, 969). Alternatively, inductive approaches construct definitions of spirituality defined by items generated from respondents (Boateng et al. 2018, 5). This method has been applied, for example, by Berghuijs et al. (2013) and La Cour et al. (2012). Based
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