Spirituality Studies 167 Thijs Huijs et al. 3.3 Item Content Analysis To structure the analysis, each transcendent item was coded according to three main categories: (1) content meaning, referring to how the transcendent aspect is described; (2) reference to experience, referring to how the transcendent aspect is experienced; and (3) actor, referring to who or what is presented as the actor in the item (i.e., the respondent or another entity). Within the content meaning category, four subcodes were identified: (a) abstract or philosophical entities, referring to unspecified or broadly defined realities (e.g., “the universe”, “all things”, “something beyond what we can see”, “something greater”); (b) impersonal beings or forces, referring to non-personified transcendent entities (e.g., “spiritual force”, “higher power”, “higher being”, “spiritual guidance”); (c) connectedness, referring to a perceived relationship or bond with something outside oneself; and (d) unity, referring to experiences of merging with a larger whole or a greater reality, including mystical or “oceanic” feelings as described by Romain Rolland. Within the category “reference to experience”, two subcodes were distinguished: (e) consciousness or quality of experience, referring to descriptions of consciousness, perception, or feeling in relation to the transcendent; and (f) numinous or meaningful feelings, referring to experiences that are difficult to put into words but are characterized by a sense of deep meaning or awe, similar to the concept of numinous as described by Rudolf Otto. Within the category “actor”, four subcodes were identified: (g) receiving (passive), in which the respondent experiences guidance, acceptance, or revelation from another entity; (h) active, in which the respondent reports being actively engaged with the transcendent (e.g., seeking contact, connecting, or exerting influence); (i) transformation, referring to a rare but specific state in which the respondent reports personal change due to the transcendent experience; and (j) trust, referring to experiences in which feelings of connectedness lead to self-confidence or the ability to cope with life’s difficulties. None of the transcendent connectedness items contained all subcodes at the same time. About one-sixth of the items could be coded in all three subdomains (content, experience, actor ship). Some combinations were more common, such as the subcodes (a, c); connectedness to an abstract entity and the subcodes (e, f); an experience of meaning. The combination of the subcodes (a, e); an experience of an abstract entity was also often seen. In terms of frequency, in the three subdomains of the items, the highest frequency was abstract 65%, experience 66% and receptive 23%. Focusing specifically on the subseries of spiritual coping items, the most common subcodes remained (a, c): connectedness to an abstract entity. However, regarding spiritual coping, the subcodes (a, g), an open trust in an abstract unity, is often seen. In the three subdomains of the items spiritual coping the highest frequency was abstract 57%, experience 11% and receptive 57%. 3.4 Item Formulation Our analysis revealed a recurring tension between conceptual depth and usability, particularly when dealing with the vertical dimension of spirituality. Items that articulate more theologically nuanced or conceptually developed understandings of transcendence often place greater cognitive or interpretive demands on respondents, for example an item “I have faith in the spiritual guidance in my life” from the SpREUK (Büssing 2010, 11). While such items may resonate with spiritually engaged or highly literate respondents, they risk alienating respondents with less spiritual literacy. In contrast, items grounded in personal experience, particularly those using straightforward first-person language, tended to be more widely understandable, for example an item “when lost and alone, turn to Higher Being” from the Spiritual Resourcefulness Scale (Zauszniewski et al. 2022, 11). Concerning transcendent connectedness an item like, “I believe there is a connection between all things that I cannot see but can sense”, from the Spirituality Scale (Delaney 2005, 158), involves a combination of experiential connection with an impersonal being. An item like “I experience a sense of awe when I consider life and the universe” from the Spiritual Health Inventory (Korinek and Arredondo Jr. 2004, 66) is based on the experience of a significant abstract entity. These items align with the objective of identifying questionnaires that comprehensively address both spiritual connectedness and spiritual coping. However, an item like, “my spiritual experiences make it necessary to make changes in myself and my life”, from Spiritual Health Inventory (Korinek
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