158 Spirituality Studies 1 Introduction Existing research shows that spirituality, measured through various approaches, is positively associated with mental well-being (Bartlett et al. 2003; Huijs et al. 2024; Michaelson et al. 2016; Thauvoye et al. 2018; Visser et al. 2010; Yamada et al. 2020). This relationship is often attributed to the role spirituality plays in providing a sense of meaning, purpose, and connectedness, particularly in times of adversity. Spirituality can serve as a psychological resource that facilitates coping when individuals face stress, illness, or other life challenges. However, many questionnaires are based on operationalizations of spirituality within a religious framework and are therefore largely based on religious definitions of spirituality. Consequently, many currently used definitions of spirituality (Pargament et al. 2000, 520; Silva et al. 2020, 412) are not inclusive of secular people, making them less applicable to a secular population. Reliance on religious definitions limits the scope of existing measurements, as spirituality is not solely confined to religious belief systems. In particular, there is little clarity on how secular spirituality, with concepts like “awareness of a transcendental dimension”, can be used effectively as a coping tool in the face of adversity. While spirituality is acknowledged as a resource for psychological resilience, most current instruments do not explicitly assess how non-religious individuals draw on spirituality to navigate life’s challenges. Addressing this limitation requires an evaluation of whether existing measures adequately capture spirituality in ways that are inclusive of both religious and secular perspectives, particularly in relation to coping strategies. This issue becomes even more pressing in the context of increasing secularization, where traditional religious participation is declining, yet personal spiritual beliefs persist and evolve in new forms. A decline in religion does not mean a decline in spirituality (Wilkins-Laflamme 2021, 516). The concept of a perceived “spiritual revolution” (Heelas et al. 2005) describes a shift from religion to spirituality without a religious connotation. Similarly, according to the theory of detraditionalization (Houtman and Aupers 2007, 305), there is not so much a disappearance of religion, but rather a relocation of the sacred into personal spirituality. This phenomenon is observed in countries like France, Great Britain, The Netherlands and Sweden, where spirituality continues to play a role in people’s lives despite declining religious affiliation (Houtman and Aupers 2007, 313–314). According to estimates from Pew Research Center (2022), the proportion of unaffiliated individuals is projected to rise. Given this context, there is a need for research questionnaires that are not bound by religious frameworks, particularly when exploring how people use spirituality as a coping tool in their lives. To study secular spirituality, we need questionnaires that focus on how individuals use spirituality to cope with everyday problems or serious illnesses. The aim of this study is to identify questionnaires that are inclusive and suitable for both secular and religious people, in accordance with the following main research question. To what extent do existing questionnaires, or their subscales or items, assess aspects of spirituality within the context of coping research, in a way that is appropriate for both secular and religious individuals? To operationalize the inclusivity criterion, only subscales or items referring to a transcendent dimension interpretable across diverse life philosophies were included (e.g., “something higher”, “a greater reality”, or “an invisible presence”). Questionnaires containing explicit references to specific religious constructs (e.g., God, prayer, or church) were excluded. However, religious people may have difficulties with specific spiritual concepts. So, subscales or items explicitly referring to spiritual concepts (e.g., spirituality or transcendence) were also excluded. Additionally, any study on spirituality unavoidably encounters the concept of “transcendence”. This concept is difficult to measure in secular contexts due to the recurrent religious language and varied interpretations. To address this, we further conducted a targeted item-level analysis of how existing questionnaires phrase transcendence to ensure accessible and inclusive language. For this analysis we used the criteria of Fowler Jr. (1995). Fowler’s criteria primarily focus on principles of clear and effective item formulation. Our study aims to identify measurement methods that can be applied to both religious and non-religious philosophies of life. Fowler provides well-established methodological guidance on constructing survey items in a neutral and precise manner, making his criteria particularly appropriate for evaluating the formulation of questionnaire items in instruments intended for a broad range of philosophical or worldview perspectives. Fowler criteria have been previously applied by de Jager Meezenbroek et al. (2012) in the development of the Spiritual Attitude and Involvement List (SAIL), which was explicitly designed to measure spirituality in a non-religious and inclusive way. To remain consistent with this established methodological approach, we have
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