Spirituality Studies 11-1 Spring 2025 23 Nadnapang Phophichit et al. Several studies have demonstrated the utility of salivary cortisol in assessing stress levels. For instance, salivary cortisol levels could help identify groups with impaired stress responses (Bani-Issa et al. 2020). Similarly, workers without stress had significantly lower cortisol levels compared to those experiencing acute stress (Amer et al. 2018, 56). 2.4 Body Composition and Health Assessment Body composition analysis has become an essential tool in assessing overall health and nutritional status. Unlike simple metrics such as Body Mass Index (BMI), body composition measurements provide a more nuanced understanding of an individual’s physical makeup, differentiating between fat mass, lean mass, and bone density (Toomey et al. 2015, 16). The importance of body composition in health assessment stems from its ability to provide insights into various health conditions and risks. For instance, excess adiposity is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular diseases and metabolic disorders, while insufficient lean mass can indicate malnutrition or sarcopenia. BMI alone tends to misclassify at the individual level and has low sensitivity in determining excess adiposity, highlighting the need for more comprehensive body composition assessments (Okorodudu et al. 2010, 791). Various methods exist for measuring body composition, each with its advantages and limitations. These include bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA), and anthropometric measurements such as skinfold thickness. The choice of method often depends on the specific clinical or research context, balancing factors such as accuracy, practicality, and cost-effectiveness. 2.5 Blood Pressure and Pulse Rate Blood pressure and pulse rate are fundamental physiological parameters that provide crucial information about cardiovascular health. Blood pressure, measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg), represents the force exerted by blood against artery walls during the cardiac cycle. It is typically expressed as two numbers: systolic pressure (when the heart contracts) and diastolic pressure (when the heart relaxes). The American College of Cardiology and American Heart Association guidelines (Whelton 2017) define normal blood pressure as less than 120/80 mm Hg, with hypertension diagnosed at 130/80 mm Hg or higher. These guidelines emphasize the importance of maintaining healthy blood pressure levels to prevent cardiovascular diseases. Pulse rate, or heart rate, measures the number of times the heart beats per minute. The American Heart Association defines a normal sinus heart rate as between 60 and 100 beats per minute (Mason et al. 2007, 228). Both blood pressure and pulse rate can be influenced by various factors, including stress, physical activity, and overall health status. 2.6 Brain Waves and EEG Electroencephalography (EEG) has emerged as a powerful non-invasive tool for studying brain activity. EEG measures the electrical activity of the brain by recording voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current flows within neurons (Olejniczak 2006, 186). This technique has been widely used in both clinical settings and neuroscience research to investigate various aspects of brain function. Brain waves, as measured by EEG, are typically categorized into different frequency bands, each associated with specific mental states or cognitive processes. These include: 1. Delta waves (0.5–3 Hz): Associated with deep, dreamless sleep and the release of growth hormone. 2. Theta waves (4–7 Hz): Linked to dreaming sleep (REM), increased creativity, and deep meditation. 3. Alpha waves (8–13 Hz): Indicative of relaxation, light meditation, and pre-sleep states. 4. Beta waves (13–30 Hz): Associated with alert wakefulness, concentration, and cognitive processing.
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