22 Spirituality Studies 11-1 Spring 2025 2 Literature Review 2.1 Four Foundations of Mindfulness The Four Foundations of Mindfulness, or “cattaro satipaṭṭhānā” in Pāli (Buddhaghosa 2010), are described in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (MN 10). These four foundations include the “mindful contemplation of the body” (Pi. Kāyānupassanā Satipaṭṭhāna), “feelings” (Pi. Vedanānupassanā Satipaṭṭhāna), “states of mind” (Pi. Cittānupassanā Satipaṭṭhāna), and “mind-objects” (Pi. Dhammānupassanā Satipaṭṭhāna). The practice of these Four Foundations focuses on cultivating awareness of the body, feelings, mind, and mental objects. These teachings were given by the Buddha as the only path to purify oneself, transcend the suffering of existence, and achieve Nibbāna, as stated in the Dīghanikāya (DN 22): The one and only path, Bhikkhus leading to the purification of beings, to passing far beyond grief and lamentation, to the dying-out of ill and misery, to the attainment of right method, to the realization of Nirvana, is that of the Fourfold Setting up of Mindfulness. The practice of the Four Foundations of Mindfulness involves observing one’s experiences without judgment, leading to mental clarity to see things as they really are. By understanding how phenomena arise, exist, and cease, one can cultivate wisdom. The Four Foundations deepen one’s awareness of the impermanent nature of existence, aligning with The Universal law of the “Three Common Characteristics” (Pi. Tilakkhana). This principle highlights that things (phenomena) are “impermanent and subject to change” (Pi. Anicca), inherently “unsatisfactory” (Pi. Dukkha), and “beyond one’s control” (Pi. Anattā). For instance, in the contemplation of the body, practitioners are instructed to observe and be mindful of breathing, abdomen movements, postures, and the body’s impermanence. In the contemplation of feelings, one observes pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral sensations without attachment. The contemplation of the mind involves recognizing various mental states, while the contemplation of mind-objects includes examining the hindrances to meditation and the factors of enlightenment. In Buddhism, this practice aims to cultivate mindfulness and awareness, leading to a deeper understanding of the nature of reality and ultimately, the cessation of suffering. 2.2 Modern Applications and Benefits In recent years, mindfulness practices derived from these Buddhist traditions have gained significant attention in Western psychology and neuroscience. Mindfulness-based interventions have shown promise in reducing stress, improving mental health, and enhancing overall well-being (Goldberg et al. 2018; Goyal et al. 2014, 357; Pascoe et al. 2017, 156). The practice of mindfulness has been associated with numerous benefits. Mindfulness can lead to stress reduction, improved memory, increased happiness, enhanced creativity, and positive effects on genes and immune function (Sutton 2020). Moreover, recent neuroimaging research indicates that mindfulness meditation is associated with long‐ lasting changes in brain network topology – particularly in the hippocampus – suggesting neuroplastic adaptations that may underlie personal growth (Lardone et al. 2018). In clinical settings, mindfulness-based interventions have been applied to various conditions. For instance, a mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program significantly lowered awakening salivary cortisol levels in individuals receiving treatment for substance abuse (Marcus et al. 2003, 63). This suggests that mindfulness practices may have a measurable impact on physiological stress markers. 2.3 Salivary Cortisol as a Biomarker of Stress Salivary cortisol has emerged as a valuable biomarker in stress research, offering insights into the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Cortisol, the primary glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex, plays a crucial role in various physiological processes, including stress response, energy metabolism, and immune function (Gatti et al. 2009, 1205). The measurement of salivary cortisol provides several advantages over serum cortisol. It reflects the levels of biologically active, non-protein bound cortisol in serum and follows the circadian variation of serum cortisol (King 2002, 92). Moreover, salivary cortisol collection is non-invasive and can be easily performed by participants at home or in various settings.
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