20 Spirituality Studies 11-1 Spring 2025 1 Introduction Mindfulness-based interventions have gained significant attention in recent years due to their potential to improve mental and physical well-being (Goldberg et al. 2018; Goyal et al. 2014, 357; Pascoe et al. 2017, 156). The Four Foundations of Mindfulness-Based Intervention (FFMBI) is a comprehensive approach that integrates mindfulness practices with four key domains: mindfulness of the body, feelings, mind, and phenomena. This approach, rooted in Theravada Buddhist traditions, offers a structured framework for cultivating awareness and insight (Payutto 2021). While there is a growing body of research on the effects of mindfulness-based interventions, limited studies have investigated the specific impact of FFMBI on various physiological markers. This study aims to address this gap by examining the effects of FFMBI on salivary cortisol levels, body composition, blood pressure, pulse rate, and brain waves of practitioners. Salivary cortisol levels have been widely used as a biomarker to measure stress and the body’s physiological response to stressors (Clow 2010, 97). High levels of cortisol have been associated with various adverse health outcomes, including anxiety, depression, cardiovascular diseases, and impaired immune function. Understanding the effects of FFMBI on salivary cortisol levels can provide insights into its stress-reducing capabilities and potential benefits for overall health. Body composition, including measures such as body mass index (BMI), body fat percentage, and muscle mass, is crucial for assessing overall health and risk of chronic diseases. Mindfulness practices have been suggested to influence eating behaviors, physical activity, and body awareness, potentially leading to changes in body composition (Ruffault et al. 2017, 90). Examining the effects of FFMBI on body composition can provide insights into its role in promoting healthy lifestyles and weight management. Blood pressure and pulse rate are important physiological indicators of cardiovascular health. Chronic stress and elevated blood pressure are significant risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. Mindfulness-based interventions have shown promise in reducing blood pressure and pulse rate, indicating their potential as non-pharmacological interventions for hypertension and stress management (Babak et al. 2022, 127). Brain waves, as measured by electroencephalography (EEG), reflect the electrical activity of the brain and offer valuable information about cognitive processes and mental states. Different patterns of brain waves, such as alpha, beta, theta, and delta waves, are associated with distinct states of consciousness, attention, and relaxation. Investigating the impact of FFMBI on brain waves can help elucidate the neural mechanisms underlying mindfulness practices and their effects on mental states. This study seeks to bridge the gap in current knowledge by providing a comprehensive examination of FFMBI’s effects on multiple physiological and psychological markers. The research employs a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative measurements with qualitative interviews to gain a holistic understanding of the intervention’s impact. The Four Foundations of Mindfulness, as described by Somdet Phra Buddhaghosacariya (Payutto 2021), encompass the “contemplation of the body” (Pi. Kāyānupassanā Satipaṭṭhāna), “feelings” (Pi. Vedanānupassanā Satipaṭṭhāna), “mind” (Pi. Cittānupassanā Satipaṭṭhāna), and “mind-objects” (Pi. Dhammānupassanā Satipaṭṭhāna). This ancient practice, rooted in Buddhist traditions, has been adapted into a structured intervention program for this study, aiming to explore its effects on modern physiological and psychological measures. Previous research has shown promising results in related areas and found that brief mindfulness meditation training led to lower cortisol responses to social stress tasks (Creswell et al. 2014, 1). and demonstrated decreased cortisol levels following intensive meditation training and mindfulness-based stress reduction programs, respectively (Jacobs et al. 2011, 664; Jaremka et al. 2013, 1089). In terms of body composition, improvements in binge and impulsive eating following mindfulness training were observed (Ruffault et al. 2017, 90), as well as significant reductions in body weight, BMI, and body fat percentage in participants who received a mindfulness-based diet and exercise intervention (Mason et al. 2016, 86). Regarding cardiovascular health, systematic reviews have shown associations between meditation interventions and reductions in blood pressure and heart rate (Hilton et al. 2017, 453; Pascoe et al. 2017, 152). These findings suggest potential benefits for cardiovascular health through mindfulness practices. Brain wave studies have highlighted the
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